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Moradi M, Bakhshipour Joybari B, Emadian S O. The Effectiveness of Positive Parenting Training on Feelings of Shame in Children of Divorce. TB 2024; 23 (2) :16-32
URL: http://tbj.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-3637-en.html
URL: http://tbj.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-3637-en.html
Associate Professor of Payam Noor University, Department of Counseling and Psychology, Tehran, Iran , ba_bakhshipour@yahoo.com
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The Effectiveness of Positive Parenting Training on Feelings of Shame in Children of Divorce
Mobarakeh Moradi (M.A.)1, Babollah Bakhshipour Joybari (Ph.D.)2, Seyedeh Olia Emadian (Ph.D.)3
1.Master's student in clinical psychology, Department of Psychology, Sari Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sari, Iran
2.Corresponding author: Associate Professor, Department of Counseling and Psychology, Payam Noor University,Tehran, Iran Email: ba_bakhshipour@yahoo.com Tel: 09111542806
3. Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Sari Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sari, Iran
Abstract
Introduction: The separation of parents from each other will bring a lot of damage and consequences to children, and it will also affect their growth and development and communication, which will lead to a feeling of shame in these children. The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effectiveness of positive parenting education on feelings of shame in children of divorce.
Methods: The method of the current research was a semi-experimental type with a pre-test-post-test design, a control group, and a three-month follow-up. The statistical population of the research included all the divorced mothers with children (7 to 12 years old) who visited Trust Counseling Center of Sari city in 2022-2023, among whom 30 people were selected randomly through convenience sampling and were replaced in two experimental and control groups. Ferguson's internalized shame questionnaire was used to collect data. Positive parenting training was conducted for 8 2-hour sessions for the experimental group, and the control group did not receive any intervention. Before and after the implementation of the pre-test and post-test sessions, both groups were taken, and after three months, both groups were followed up again. To analyze data, analysis of variance with repeated measurements was used through SPSS version 26 software.
Results: The results of the present study showed that there was a significant difference between the mean of the shame variable and its component in the pre-test-post-test and pre-test-follow-up stages (p<0/05).
Conclusion: Based on the findings, it can be concluded that positive parenting training has been able to reduce the feeling of shame in divorced children; therefore, positive parenting training is suggested to reduce the feeling of shame in children.
Keywords: Positive Parenting, Feelings of Shame, Children of Divorce
References
1-Mortelmans D. Divorce in Europe: New insights in trends, causes and consequences of relation break-ups.Springer Nature. 2020
2-Kabyn A. The Psychological Consequences of Children of Parental Divorce. Canadian Journal of Family and Youth/Le Journal Canadien de Famille et de la Jeunesse. 2023; 15(2):120-125.
3-Qaradaghi A, Mobini Keshe F. Comparison of self-concept, gender role and emotional maturity in children with and without parental divorce experience. Quarterly Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy Culture. 2021; 11(42):231-260.[Persian]
4-Crespin-Boucaud J, Hotte R. Parental divorces and children’s educational outcomes in Senegal. World Development. 2021; 145:105483
5-Laletas S, Khasin M. Children of high conflict divorce: Exploring the experiences of primary school teachers. Children and Youth Services Review. 2021; 127:106072.
6-Mekonnen Y, Kassa K, Ayalew. Prevalence, causes and consequences of divorce in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia. African Journal of Social Work. 2019; 9(1).
7-Garrido-Rojas L, Guzmán-González M, Mendoza-Llanos R & et al.Emotional regulation and depression in a sample of separated and divorced Chilean adults. Current Psychology. 2021; 40:1767-1778.
8-Kaduson HG, Cangelosi D, Schaefer CE. Prescriptive Play Therapy: Tailoring Interventions for Specific Childhood Problems. Guilford Publications. 2019.
9-Asgharpour Lashkami Z, Asaseh M, Kashani Vahid L & et al. Development of early intervention program based on cognitive-behavioral theory for divorced children with emotional-behavioral disorders and its effectiveness in aggression of divorced children. Shenakht Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry. 2023; 10:16-20.
10- Sundvall JR. The Assessment of Permissive Parenting on Children’s Expression of Shame in Divorced Families (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University). 2023.
11-Ross ND, Kaminski PL, Herrington R. From childhood emotional maltreatment to depressive symptoms in adulthood: The roles of self-compassion and shame. Child abuse & neglect. 2019; 92: 32-42.
12-Sorek Y. Grandparental and overall social support as resilience factors in coping with parental conflict among children of divorce. Children and Youth Services Review. 2020; 118(22):1054-1058.
13-Auersperg F, Vlasak T, Ponocny I & et al. Long-term effects of parental divorce on mental health: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2019; 119:107-115.
14-O’Leary JL, McKee LG , Faro AL. Guilt and Shame: Explaining Associations Between Emotion Socialization and Emerging Adult Well‐Being. Family Relations. 2019; 68(5):608-623.
15-Dos Santos MA, de Freitas e Castro JM, de Freitas Lino Pinto Cardoso CS. The Moral Emotions of Guilt and Shame in Children: Relationship with Parenting and Temperament. Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2020; 29(10): 2759-2769.
16-Burns ST. Raising awareness of the impact of guilt and shame on counselor education students. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health. 2023;18(2):178-96.
17-Bellemare C, Sebald A, Suetens S. Guilt aversion in economics and psychology. Journal of Economic Psychology. 2019; 73: 52-59.
18-Söylemez S, Koyuncu M, Wolf OT & et al. How shame and guilt influence perspective taking: A comparison of Turkish and German cultures. Journal of cognition and culture. 2022; 22(1-2):20-40
19-Salerno A, Raciti I, Tosto M & et al. Parental Triangulation in Separated & Divorced Families: Causes and Impact on the Intergenerational Parent-Child Conflict. 2023.
20-Galántai J, Ligeti AS, Wirth J. Children exposed to violence: Child custody and its effects on children in intimate partner violence related cases in Hungary. Journal of family violence. 2023; 34(5):399-409.
21-Gutowski E, Goodman LA. “Like I’m invisible”: IPV survivor-mothers’ perceptions of seeking child custody through the family court system. Journal of family violence. 2020; 35(5):441-457.
22-Hillebrandt A, Barclay LJ. How cheating undermines the perceived value of justice in the workplace: The mediating effect of shame. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2020; 10(51):1164-1180.
23-Khatami F , Zare H, Shahriari Ahmadi M. Comparing the effect of positive parenting education and parent management on improving parent-child relationship. Child Health Quarterly. 2020; 7(3):25-39.
24-Nooripour R, Hoseinian S, Ghasemzadeh S. Effectiveness of Positive Parenting Program on Social Adjustment and Exam Anxiety in Inadaptable Children. Journal Of Exceptional Children Empowerment. 2017; 7(20):95-107.
25-Yamaoka Y, Bard DE. Positive parenting matters in the face of early adversity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2019; 56(4):530-539.
26-Prime H, Andrews K, Markwell A & et al. Positive parenting and early childhood cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 2023; 6(2):362-400.
27-Özyurt G, Dinsever C, Caliskan Z & et al. Can positive parenting program (Triple P) be useful to prevent child maltreatment? Indian journal of psychiatry. 2018; 60(3):91-286.
28-Cullum K, Goodman S, Garber J & et al. A positive parenting program to enhance positive affect in children of previously depressed mothers. Journal of Family Psychology. 2022.
29-Rahimi M, Akrami N, Ghamarani A. The effectiveness of positive parenting program on self-efficacy and parenting style in mothers of children with internalized and externalized disorders. Clinical Psychology and Personality. Clinical Psychology and Personality. 2021; 19(1):93-107.
30-Isanejad O, Saidi T, Alipour E. The effect of teaching positive parenting to parents on behavioral problems and responsibility of aggressive elementary school students. Educational psychology studies. 2018; 16(35): 191-210.
31-Novin S, Rieffe C. Validation of the brief shame and guilt questionnaire for children. Personality Individual. Personality Individual Differences. 2015; 85:56-59.
32- Najafi SF, Sepehari Shamlou Z, Karsheki H. Construction and Validation of Sharm Scale in students of Ferdowsi and Payam Noor Universities of Mashhad. Clinical psychology research and counseling. 2018; 8(1):73-90. [Persian]
33-Sanders MR. Triple P–Positive Parenting Program: A population approach to promoting competent parenting. Australian e-journal for the Advancement of Mental Health. 2003; 2(3):127-143.
34-Dostani S, Qumrani A. Comparing the effectiveness of emotional socialization training and teaching parenting metaphors to mothers on the shame of children with internalized behavioral problems. Research in Cognitive & Behavioral Sciences. 2022; 11(2). [Persian]
35-Oliveira T, Costa D, Alvim-Soares A & et al. Children's behavioral problems, screen time, and sleep problems' association with negative and positive parenting strategies during the COVID-19 outbreak in Brazil. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2022; 30:105345.
36-Garcia A, DeNard C, Ohene S & et al. “I am more than my past”: Parents' attitudes and perceptions of the Positive Parenting Program in Child Welfare. Children and Youth Services Review. 2018; 88: 97-286.
37-Nemati S, Arif Menesh B, Hosseinpour F. The effectiveness of positive parenting on the resilience and quality of life of mothers with children with special learning disabilities. Knowledge and research in applied psychology. 2023. [Persian]
38-Hajbabaeiravandi A, Tajali P, Ghanaripanah A A & et al. Comparison of the Effectiveness of Positive Parenting Program and Distress Tolerance Skills on the Psychological Well-Being of Mothers of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals. 2022; 12(47):53-79. [Persian]
39-Chambers R, Gullone E, Allen NB. Mindful emotion regulation. An integrative review. Clinical psychology review. 2019; 29(6):560-572.
40-Falah S, Abol-Maali Al-Husseini K, Thabit M. The effectiveness of teaching positive parenting to parentsPreschool children on self-control and self-efficacy children. Islamic Life Style. 2022; 6(2): 260-269. [Persian]
41-Lebow JL. Divorce Issues in Couple Therapy. Clinical Handbook of Couple Therapy. 2022; 472.
42-Prime H, ndrews K, Markwell A A & et al. Positive parenting and early childhood cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical child and family psychology review. 2023; 6(2):362-400.
43-Malekpour N, Abedi M, Samani S. The Effect of Proactive Parenting Therapy and Positive Parenting Therapy on Internalizing and Externalizing Problems of Children. Psychological Methods and Models. 2023; 13(50):34-119. [Persian]
44-Mehdizadeh Goki M, Pahlavan R, Nowrozi Far M. Investigating the role of parenting styles on adolescent girls' feelings of shame and guilt. the 5th International Conference on Humanities, Law, Social Studies and Psycholog. 2023. [Persian]
45-Viki de Lieme. Positive Parenting: Breaking the Cycle of Fear, Guilt, and Shame - Interactive Workbook Included Paperback. 2023.
46-Juffer F, Bakermans-Kranenburg M, Van IJzendoorn MH M. Promoting positive parenting: An attachment-based intervention. Taylor & Francis. 2023.
47-Dehghani F, Razavi V, Manzari A & et al. Comparison of the Effectiveness of Positive Parenting Education and Bibliotherapy on Children’s Anxiety using a Schema Approach. 2023. [Persian]
48-Nikkho F, Talkabad Arani Z, Javidmeh Z. Effectiveness of online positive parenting program on social-emotional skills and emotion recognition of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Quarterly Journal of Applied Psychological Research. 2024. [Persian]
49-Mitchell A, Morawska A, Lohan A. Randomised controlled trial of the Healthy Living Triple P–Positive Parenting Program for families of children with type 1 diabetes. Journal of Child Health Care. Journal of Child Health Care. 2024; 282:55-235.
50-Chen Y, Haines J, Charlton B, & et al. T. Positive parenting improves multiple aspects of health and well-being in young adulthood. Nature human behaviour. 2019; 3(7):91-684.
51-Rajabi K, heikhi Ghafarakhi Y. nvestigating the positive parenting training program on reducing children's behavioral problems and increasing the quality of family life of parents with children with autism spectrum disorder. Scientific Quarterly of Psychological Methods and Models. 2024; 14(5). [Persian]
Mobarakeh Moradi (M.A.)1, Babollah Bakhshipour Joybari (Ph.D.)2, Seyedeh Olia Emadian (Ph.D.)3
1.Master's student in clinical psychology, Department of Psychology, Sari Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sari, Iran
2.Corresponding author: Associate Professor, Department of Counseling and Psychology, Payam Noor University,Tehran, Iran Email: ba_bakhshipour@yahoo.com Tel: 09111542806
3. Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Sari Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sari, Iran
Abstract
Introduction: The separation of parents from each other will bring a lot of damage and consequences to children, and it will also affect their growth and development and communication, which will lead to a feeling of shame in these children. The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effectiveness of positive parenting education on feelings of shame in children of divorce.
Methods: The method of the current research was a semi-experimental type with a pre-test-post-test design, a control group, and a three-month follow-up. The statistical population of the research included all the divorced mothers with children (7 to 12 years old) who visited Trust Counseling Center of Sari city in 2022-2023, among whom 30 people were selected randomly through convenience sampling and were replaced in two experimental and control groups. Ferguson's internalized shame questionnaire was used to collect data. Positive parenting training was conducted for 8 2-hour sessions for the experimental group, and the control group did not receive any intervention. Before and after the implementation of the pre-test and post-test sessions, both groups were taken, and after three months, both groups were followed up again. To analyze data, analysis of variance with repeated measurements was used through SPSS version 26 software.
Results: The results of the present study showed that there was a significant difference between the mean of the shame variable and its component in the pre-test-post-test and pre-test-follow-up stages (p<0/05).
Conclusion: Based on the findings, it can be concluded that positive parenting training has been able to reduce the feeling of shame in divorced children; therefore, positive parenting training is suggested to reduce the feeling of shame in children.
Keywords: Positive Parenting, Feelings of Shame, Children of Divorce
References
1-Mortelmans D. Divorce in Europe: New insights in trends, causes and consequences of relation break-ups.Springer Nature. 2020
2-Kabyn A. The Psychological Consequences of Children of Parental Divorce. Canadian Journal of Family and Youth/Le Journal Canadien de Famille et de la Jeunesse. 2023; 15(2):120-125.
3-Qaradaghi A, Mobini Keshe F. Comparison of self-concept, gender role and emotional maturity in children with and without parental divorce experience. Quarterly Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy Culture. 2021; 11(42):231-260.[Persian]
4-Crespin-Boucaud J, Hotte R. Parental divorces and children’s educational outcomes in Senegal. World Development. 2021; 145:105483
5-Laletas S, Khasin M. Children of high conflict divorce: Exploring the experiences of primary school teachers. Children and Youth Services Review. 2021; 127:106072.
6-Mekonnen Y, Kassa K, Ayalew. Prevalence, causes and consequences of divorce in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia. African Journal of Social Work. 2019; 9(1).
7-Garrido-Rojas L, Guzmán-González M, Mendoza-Llanos R & et al.Emotional regulation and depression in a sample of separated and divorced Chilean adults. Current Psychology. 2021; 40:1767-1778.
8-Kaduson HG, Cangelosi D, Schaefer CE. Prescriptive Play Therapy: Tailoring Interventions for Specific Childhood Problems. Guilford Publications. 2019.
9-Asgharpour Lashkami Z, Asaseh M, Kashani Vahid L & et al. Development of early intervention program based on cognitive-behavioral theory for divorced children with emotional-behavioral disorders and its effectiveness in aggression of divorced children. Shenakht Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry. 2023; 10:16-20.
10- Sundvall JR. The Assessment of Permissive Parenting on Children’s Expression of Shame in Divorced Families (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University). 2023.
11-Ross ND, Kaminski PL, Herrington R. From childhood emotional maltreatment to depressive symptoms in adulthood: The roles of self-compassion and shame. Child abuse & neglect. 2019; 92: 32-42.
12-Sorek Y. Grandparental and overall social support as resilience factors in coping with parental conflict among children of divorce. Children and Youth Services Review. 2020; 118(22):1054-1058.
13-Auersperg F, Vlasak T, Ponocny I & et al. Long-term effects of parental divorce on mental health: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2019; 119:107-115.
14-O’Leary JL, McKee LG , Faro AL. Guilt and Shame: Explaining Associations Between Emotion Socialization and Emerging Adult Well‐Being. Family Relations. 2019; 68(5):608-623.
15-Dos Santos MA, de Freitas e Castro JM, de Freitas Lino Pinto Cardoso CS. The Moral Emotions of Guilt and Shame in Children: Relationship with Parenting and Temperament. Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2020; 29(10): 2759-2769.
16-Burns ST. Raising awareness of the impact of guilt and shame on counselor education students. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health. 2023;18(2):178-96.
17-Bellemare C, Sebald A, Suetens S. Guilt aversion in economics and psychology. Journal of Economic Psychology. 2019; 73: 52-59.
18-Söylemez S, Koyuncu M, Wolf OT & et al. How shame and guilt influence perspective taking: A comparison of Turkish and German cultures. Journal of cognition and culture. 2022; 22(1-2):20-40
19-Salerno A, Raciti I, Tosto M & et al. Parental Triangulation in Separated & Divorced Families: Causes and Impact on the Intergenerational Parent-Child Conflict. 2023.
20-Galántai J, Ligeti AS, Wirth J. Children exposed to violence: Child custody and its effects on children in intimate partner violence related cases in Hungary. Journal of family violence. 2023; 34(5):399-409.
21-Gutowski E, Goodman LA. “Like I’m invisible”: IPV survivor-mothers’ perceptions of seeking child custody through the family court system. Journal of family violence. 2020; 35(5):441-457.
22-Hillebrandt A, Barclay LJ. How cheating undermines the perceived value of justice in the workplace: The mediating effect of shame. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2020; 10(51):1164-1180.
23-Khatami F , Zare H, Shahriari Ahmadi M. Comparing the effect of positive parenting education and parent management on improving parent-child relationship. Child Health Quarterly. 2020; 7(3):25-39.
24-Nooripour R, Hoseinian S, Ghasemzadeh S. Effectiveness of Positive Parenting Program on Social Adjustment and Exam Anxiety in Inadaptable Children. Journal Of Exceptional Children Empowerment. 2017; 7(20):95-107.
25-Yamaoka Y, Bard DE. Positive parenting matters in the face of early adversity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2019; 56(4):530-539.
26-Prime H, Andrews K, Markwell A & et al. Positive parenting and early childhood cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 2023; 6(2):362-400.
27-Özyurt G, Dinsever C, Caliskan Z & et al. Can positive parenting program (Triple P) be useful to prevent child maltreatment? Indian journal of psychiatry. 2018; 60(3):91-286.
28-Cullum K, Goodman S, Garber J & et al. A positive parenting program to enhance positive affect in children of previously depressed mothers. Journal of Family Psychology. 2022.
29-Rahimi M, Akrami N, Ghamarani A. The effectiveness of positive parenting program on self-efficacy and parenting style in mothers of children with internalized and externalized disorders. Clinical Psychology and Personality. Clinical Psychology and Personality. 2021; 19(1):93-107.
30-Isanejad O, Saidi T, Alipour E. The effect of teaching positive parenting to parents on behavioral problems and responsibility of aggressive elementary school students. Educational psychology studies. 2018; 16(35): 191-210.
31-Novin S, Rieffe C. Validation of the brief shame and guilt questionnaire for children. Personality Individual. Personality Individual Differences. 2015; 85:56-59.
32- Najafi SF, Sepehari Shamlou Z, Karsheki H. Construction and Validation of Sharm Scale in students of Ferdowsi and Payam Noor Universities of Mashhad. Clinical psychology research and counseling. 2018; 8(1):73-90. [Persian]
33-Sanders MR. Triple P–Positive Parenting Program: A population approach to promoting competent parenting. Australian e-journal for the Advancement of Mental Health. 2003; 2(3):127-143.
34-Dostani S, Qumrani A. Comparing the effectiveness of emotional socialization training and teaching parenting metaphors to mothers on the shame of children with internalized behavioral problems. Research in Cognitive & Behavioral Sciences. 2022; 11(2). [Persian]
35-Oliveira T, Costa D, Alvim-Soares A & et al. Children's behavioral problems, screen time, and sleep problems' association with negative and positive parenting strategies during the COVID-19 outbreak in Brazil. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2022; 30:105345.
36-Garcia A, DeNard C, Ohene S & et al. “I am more than my past”: Parents' attitudes and perceptions of the Positive Parenting Program in Child Welfare. Children and Youth Services Review. 2018; 88: 97-286.
37-Nemati S, Arif Menesh B, Hosseinpour F. The effectiveness of positive parenting on the resilience and quality of life of mothers with children with special learning disabilities. Knowledge and research in applied psychology. 2023. [Persian]
38-Hajbabaeiravandi A, Tajali P, Ghanaripanah A A & et al. Comparison of the Effectiveness of Positive Parenting Program and Distress Tolerance Skills on the Psychological Well-Being of Mothers of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals. 2022; 12(47):53-79. [Persian]
39-Chambers R, Gullone E, Allen NB. Mindful emotion regulation. An integrative review. Clinical psychology review. 2019; 29(6):560-572.
40-Falah S, Abol-Maali Al-Husseini K, Thabit M. The effectiveness of teaching positive parenting to parentsPreschool children on self-control and self-efficacy children. Islamic Life Style. 2022; 6(2): 260-269. [Persian]
41-Lebow JL. Divorce Issues in Couple Therapy. Clinical Handbook of Couple Therapy. 2022; 472.
42-Prime H, ndrews K, Markwell A A & et al. Positive parenting and early childhood cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical child and family psychology review. 2023; 6(2):362-400.
43-Malekpour N, Abedi M, Samani S. The Effect of Proactive Parenting Therapy and Positive Parenting Therapy on Internalizing and Externalizing Problems of Children. Psychological Methods and Models. 2023; 13(50):34-119. [Persian]
44-Mehdizadeh Goki M, Pahlavan R, Nowrozi Far M. Investigating the role of parenting styles on adolescent girls' feelings of shame and guilt. the 5th International Conference on Humanities, Law, Social Studies and Psycholog. 2023. [Persian]
45-Viki de Lieme. Positive Parenting: Breaking the Cycle of Fear, Guilt, and Shame - Interactive Workbook Included Paperback. 2023.
46-Juffer F, Bakermans-Kranenburg M, Van IJzendoorn MH M. Promoting positive parenting: An attachment-based intervention. Taylor & Francis. 2023.
47-Dehghani F, Razavi V, Manzari A & et al. Comparison of the Effectiveness of Positive Parenting Education and Bibliotherapy on Children’s Anxiety using a Schema Approach. 2023. [Persian]
48-Nikkho F, Talkabad Arani Z, Javidmeh Z. Effectiveness of online positive parenting program on social-emotional skills and emotion recognition of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Quarterly Journal of Applied Psychological Research. 2024. [Persian]
49-Mitchell A, Morawska A, Lohan A. Randomised controlled trial of the Healthy Living Triple P–Positive Parenting Program for families of children with type 1 diabetes. Journal of Child Health Care. Journal of Child Health Care. 2024; 282:55-235.
50-Chen Y, Haines J, Charlton B, & et al. T. Positive parenting improves multiple aspects of health and well-being in young adulthood. Nature human behaviour. 2019; 3(7):91-684.
51-Rajabi K, heikhi Ghafarakhi Y. nvestigating the positive parenting training program on reducing children's behavioral problems and increasing the quality of family life of parents with children with autism spectrum disorder. Scientific Quarterly of Psychological Methods and Models. 2024; 14(5). [Persian]
Type of Study: Research |
Subject:
Psychology
Received: 2024/04/21 | Accepted: 2024/06/9 | Published: 2024/06/30
Received: 2024/04/21 | Accepted: 2024/06/9 | Published: 2024/06/30
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